The plants of the Native Americans

The Mi'kmaq are the pre‐contact inhabitants of the region comprised of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, the Gaspe region of Quebec, northern Maine and southern Newfoundland.  While there is a wide range of estimates of the Mi'kmaq population before initial arrival of Europeans in North America, it is likely that the population at the time of contact was roughly 35,000 (Miller 1976).   

The Mi'kmaq territory was divided into seven traditional "districts".  Each district had its own independent government and boundaries.  The independent governments had a district chief (Keptinaq or Saqmaw) and a council.  The council members were band (family groupings or "clans") chiefs, elders and other worthy community leaders.  The district council was charged with performing all the duties of any independent and free government by enacting laws, justice, apportioning fishing and hunting grounds, making war, suing for peace, etc.  

The seven Mi'kmaq Districts are:

• Kespukwitk, 
• Sikepnékatik,
• Eskíkekik, 
• Unamákik, 
• Piktuk aqq Epekwitk, 
• Sikniktewaq and 
• Kespékewaq

In addition to the district councils, there was also a Grand Council or Santé Mawiómi.  The Grand Council was composed of "keptinaq".  There were also Elders, the Putús (Wampum belt readers and historians, who also dealt with the treaties with the non‐natives and other Native tribes), the women council and the Grand Chief (kji' saqmaw).  

The Grand Chief was a title given to one of the district chiefs. 

The local Mi'kmaq communities seasonally moved throughout the region to occupy areas of abundant food and shelter.  Much of this travel was along waterways which facilitated transportation and food harvesting.  It is therefore likely that the coastal rivers and streams were used during coastal travel as they provided the opportunity for harvesting and for an inland excursion in search of suitable encampments.

Ancient First Nations people using this area would have lived a migratory life, travelling throughout the Unama'kik district, as noted above.  This migratory cycle involved seasonal movement between areas where shelter and food resources were most abundant.   

While it is difficult to fully comprehend the undisturbed forests and riverine habitats that existed before colonial influences, it is possible to understand the relationship between landscape and human use activities.   

The Affinity Renewables Wind Project sites fall within the Piktuk aqq Epekwitk district, which in English means "Laying in the Water" possibly in recognition of the important relationship the Island held with the coastal inhabitants of the mainland (Rand 1875).  

This area, also known as "the explosive place is frequented by significant thunderstorms during the summer months.  According to oral tradition, the people of the Piktuk aqq Epekwitk district have used the lands and coastal waters of the area since the beginning of time, travelling between what is now known as the Northumberland coastal areas of Colchester, Pictou and Antigonish counties and Prince Edward Island Many of the families that traditionally occupied the district were relocated to the Eskasoni First Nation and the Indian Brook First Nation (Shubenacadie) as part of Canada's centralization policies.  

However, many of the descendants of the initial inhabitants of this region are located in the Pictou Landing, Paq'tnkek and the Millbrook First Nations.   Both archaeology and oral history add to the knowledge of how these ancestors lived in pre‐contact times.  

Dates and time periods were not important to the Mi'kmaq in understanding their history, and many hold the belief that they have occupied the region since it was possible to sustain life.  Historically,  knowledge was passed down from generation to generation through stories. Often these stories passed empirical knowledge of the physical and biological environment through myths, for example, one such story describes how the earth came into being and how the animals and the People came to inhabit the region (Lockerby 2004). 

This tradition of storytelling has evolved over the centuries; however,  the dependence on oral tradition remains important in Mi'kmaq communities. 

Mi'kmaq way of life changed after contact with the French, the first European settlers to this area.  Colonial conflicts between France and England during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries shaped the cultural development of the indigenous population (Thorp 1996), and eventual permanent European settlement would further challenge the survival of Mi'kmaq culture and Mi'kmaq as a people..

American Beech / Fagus grandifolia is a tree which belongs to the Beech or Fagaceae family.  It occurs in fertile uplands, rarely in swamps.  Nuts of this species have been used by Mi’kmaq in NS (Speck and Dexter 1951, 1952).  The branches are used to make snowshoe frames (Speck and Dexter 1951).  Leaves have been used to treat chancre, while the leaves and bark have also been used for fevers and festers (Chandler et al. 1979). 

American Mountain Ash / E’psemusi / Sorbus americana is a small tree belonging to the Rosaceae (rose) family.  It occurs in open woods and along hedgerows.  The bark can be used to treat stomach pains (Lacey 1993) and "mother pains" (Chandler et al. 1979).  The bark has also been used to treat boils (Chandler et al. 1979), and parts of plant can used as an emetic (Chandler et al.1979).  An infusion of root may be taken for colic and other unspecified purposes (Speck 1917). 

Balsam fir / Stoqn / Abies balsamea is an evergreen conifer belonging to the Pinaceae (Pine) family.  Balsam fir grows in a wide variety of habitats.  It is known to be high in Vitamin C and antioxidant flavonoids (MacKinnon et al. 2009).  Balsam fir has been used as a source of food and medicines as well as craft and construction materials by many First Nations.  In eastern Canada, Balsam Fir bark has been used to make a beverage (Speck and Dexter 1951, Lacey 1977).  This species has a wide range of traditional medicinal uses.  The buds, cones and inner bark were used to treat diarrhoea (Chandler et al. 1979).  The cones were also used to treat colic (Wallis 1922, Chandler et al. 1979), while the buds were used as a laxative (Chandler et al. 1979).  The bark was used for gonorrhoea (Chandler et al. 1979).  The gum was used as a burn dressing and to treat bruises, sores, wounds and fractures (Chandler et al. 1979, Speck 1917).  It was also used as a cold remedy (Chandler et al. 1979).  Balsam fir was also used to prevent colds and influenza, with tea from cones and tops used to relieve colic, asthma and tuberculosis symptoms (Lacey 1993).  The sap was used to treat stomach ulcers and as a healing antiseptic for cuts and sores (Lacey 1993).  Balsam fir wood has been used for kindling and fuel, while the evergreen boughs were used to make beds (Speck and Dexter 1951, Unama’ki Institute of Natural Resources, 2012). 

Beaked Hazelnut / Malipqwanj / Corylus cornuta is a small tree belonging to the Betulaceae (Birch) family that occurs in dry and open woods, sometimes in climax forests, scattered along roadside thickets, along edges of fields and along margins of woods.  It produces edible nuts which have been consumed by Mi'kmaq in NS (Speck and Dexter 1951, 1952, Stoddard 1962).  The root has also been used as cough medicine (Chandler et al. 1979), and the twigs have been used in basketry (Wallis and Wallis 1955). 

Birch / Betula sp.  Birch trees are deciduous members of the Betulaceae family which occur in a variety of habitats. Birch bark is used to make torches for night fishing or to make trumpets for calling amusement.  The bark can also be used to construct containers, boxes, and cups.  Bark sheets are used in wigwam construction (Speck and Dexter 1951, Wallis and Wallis 1955, Nova Scotia Museum factsheet, ND). See also Paper, Grey, and Yellow Birch.

Black Spruce or Bog Spruce / Kawatkw / Picea mariana is an evergreen tree in the Pine family.  It grows mostly in bogs, swamps and poorly drained areas.  The bark of black spruce was used to make a beverage or medicinal tea by the Micmac of the Maritimes (Speck and Dexter 1951, Wallis and Wallis 1955; Lacey 1977).  The bark is chewed to treat laryngitis (Lacey 1993) and as a cough remedy (Wallis 1922).  Black spruce wood is used for kindling and fuel, and the boughs were traditionally used to make beds (Speck and Dexter 1951).  The roots are used as sewing material for canoe birch bark products (Speck and Dexter 1951).  Unspecified spruce species have also been used as a source of poles for wigwam construction, and roots for sewing twine (Nova Scotia Museum factsheet, ND, Wallis and Wallis 1955).

Boneset / Eupatorium perfoliatum is a tall perennial herbaceous plant in the Aster (Asteraceae) family, which grows in wet shores, meadows, the edge of swamps and bogs, along ditches and streams. Traditionally it has been used to treat stomach ulcers, colds and to provide relief from arthritic pain (Lacey 1993).  It has also been reported to be used to treat kidney trouble, gonorrhoea, and spitting blood (Chandler et al. .1979). 

Bristly Dewberry or Swamp Dewberry / Rubus hispidus is a bramble in the Rosacea or Rose family.  It grows mostly in peat bogs but often occurs on roadsides, damp hollows and barrens.  Roots of this species are used to treat fever, cough and consumption (Chandler et al. (1979).  The fruits of various other unspecified Rubus species have also been used as a food source by Mi'kmaq people of Nova Scotia (Speck and Dexter 1951, 1952). 

Broadleaf Cattail / Typha latifolia is a herbaceous plant belonging to the Typhaceae or cattail family.  It occurs in Swamps, ponds, and ditches in estuaries above the saltwater, occasionally in floating bogs.  It has been used as a dermatological aid to relieve sores (Chandler et al. 1979).  Unspecified cattail species have also been widely used for weaving bags and mats (Nova Scotia Museum factsheet, ND). 

Bunchberry / Cornus canadensis is a small woody shrub which is part of the Dogwood family.  It grows in forested areas.  A tea brewed with leaves of this species was used to treat bedwetting and kidney ailments (Lacey 1977).  The berries, roots and leaves were thought to have anticonvulsant properties and were used to treat seizures (Chandler et al. 1979).  The plant was also used to treat stomach problems, and leaves were applied to wounds to stop bleeding and promote healing (Lacey 1993). 

Christmas Fern / Polystichum acrostichoides is an evergreen fern belonging to the Dryopteridaceae or wood fern family.  It grows in moist woods, cool ravines, wooded banks and thickets.  Roots of this plant have been used as a throat aid to treat hoarseness (Chandler et al. 1979).

Common Blackberry / Ajioqjominaqsi / Rubus allegheniensis is a bramble in the Rosaceae or Rose family.  It grows in sandy ground, old fields, open woodlands, and clearings.  Berries of many bramble species were eaten fresh or preserved.  Blackberry fruit can be used to treat diarrhoea, and a tea made from runners was used as stomach medicine (Lacey 1993).  A tea brewed from leaves and berries was also used to treat sores in the mouth and throat (Lacey 1993).  The fruits of various other unspecified Rubus species have also been used as a food source by Mi'kmaq people of Nova Scotia (Speck and Dexter 1951, 1952).

Common Chokecherry / Luimanaqsi / Prunus virginiana is a small tree in the Rosaceae (Rose) family.  It occurs along roadsides, fencerows, edges of intervales, and the edges of woods.  Bark of this species can be used to treat diarrhoea and bleeding lungs (Chandler et al. 1979).  Twigs and barks from unspecified Prunus species have also been boiled to make a tea (Lacey 1993). 

Common Dandelion / Taraxacum officinale is an introduced species belonging to the Asteraceae or Aster family which is an aggressive weed in lawns, pastures, and cultivated soil.  The young leaves may be eaten raw or cooked (Rousseau 1945; Speck and Dexter 1951, 1952). 

Common Plantain / Wijikanipkl / Plantago major is an introduced plant species belonging to the Plantaginaceae or plantain family, which is widely used as an edible and medicinal herb.  A colonizing species, it grows in disturbed areas.  It is used to draw out the poison from wounds and sores, and to treat stomach ulcers (Lacey 1993). 

Common Wild Rose / Jikjawiknejewimusi'l / Rosa virginiana is a thorny shrub belonging to the Rosaceae (Rose) family.  It occurs in old pastures, thickets, dykelands, and around the heads of salt marshes.  It produces large persistent fruits (rose hips) which have provided a food source for many First Nations people (MacKinnon et al. 2009, Unama'ki Institute of Natural Resources, 2012). 

Creeping Snowberry / Gaultheria hispidula Is a small woodland plant with waxy leaves and small red berries. It is a member of the Ericaceae or Heath family and grows on mossy woodland knolls, barrens, and mature bogs, usually in partial shade.  It has been reported that that species had medicinal properties; however, the use was not specified (Speck 1917). 

Curly Dock / Rumex crispus is a perennial herbaceous flowering plant belonging to the Polygonaceae (knotweed) family.  Not native to North America, it is now commonly found in waste places, on the cultivated ground, along roadsides and around dwellings.  An infusion of curly dock roots has been used by Mi'kmaq in eastern Canada as a purgative (Mechling 1959). 

Eastern Hemlock / Tsuga canadensis is a large coniferous tree belonging to the Pinaceae or Pine family. It occurs mostly on northern slopes or ravines.  This species has many medicinal uses.  The inner bark was grated and eaten by the Mi'kmaq, and the bark was also used as a beverage and medicinal tea (Speck and Dexter 1951, Wallis and Wallis 1955, Stoddard 1962, Lacey 1977).  A tea made from the bark and stems is used to treat colds and influenza (Lacey 1993, Chandler et al. 1979, Wallis 1922), while the inner bark is used for diarrhoea and to treat scurvy and chapped skin (Chandler et al. 1979).  The bark was also used to treat bowel and internal troubles (Wallis 1922, Chandler et al. 1979) and to treat cough and grippe (Wallis 1922, Chandler et al. 1979).  Roots and stems were used to treat kidney ailments (Chandler et al. 1979).  Hemlock bark is also used to make a dye, while the wood is used for kindling and fuel (Speck and Dexter 1951). 

Eastern Larch or Tamarack / Hackmatack or Apu'tam'kie' jit / Larix laricina is one of the few coniferous trees which are actually deciduous.  A member of the Pinaceae or Pine family this species is very common in NS and is found in bogs and wet depressions in forests.  Larch Wood used for kindling and fuel (Speck and Dexter 1951).  Bark from larch was used to treat "suppurating wounds" and colds (Chandler et al. 1979).  A tea made from the boughs was used to treat sores and swelling (Speck 1917), while the bark was used as a stimulant to treat physical weakness (Chandler et al. 1979).  A tea brewed from larch bark and twigs used to treat colds and influenza, while the bark was used externally to treat festering wounds (Lacey 1993) and in the treatment of consumption and gonorrhoea (Chandler et al. 1979).  Larch wood was also used for kindling and fuel (Speck and Dexter 1951).

European Yarrow / Achillea millefolium is a herbaceous flowering plant in the family Asteraceae.  It is found growing in disturbed areas such as old fields, meadows, roadsides and sandy shores, and usually in acidic soils.  A tea from the plant may be used to treat fevers.  It has been used to treat colds (Chandler et al. 1979), with (Wallis 1922) stating that a decoction of plant was taken with milk to cause sweat to treat colds.  The dried, powdered bark or green leaves could be used for swelling, bruises and sprains (Lacey 1993, Wallis 1922, Chandler et al. 1979). 

Field Mint / Plamwipkl / Mentha arvensis is a herbaceous plant belonging to the Mint family. It grows in rich damp soil.  It is traditionally used to treat upset stomach and croup in children (Chandler et al. 1979). 

Foxberry or Mountain Cranberry or Lingonberry / Poqomannaqsiis / Vaccinium vitis‐idaea is a low‐ growing woody vine belonging to Ericaceae or heath family.  It grows in cooler regions, such as exposed, coastal headlands and barrens.  Berries can be eaten fresh or preserved.  

Goldthread / Wisawtaqji'jkl / Coptis trifolia is a small perennial plant in the Ranunculaceae (Buttercup) family.  It grows primarily in coniferous forests, swamps, hammocks on bogs, and along roadside banks.  It is traditionally used to promote appetite as well as to treat sore or chapped lips and mouth ulcers (Lacey 1993). 

Grey Birch / Betula populifolia  Inner bark is used for infected cuts (Chandler et al. 1979).  The bark of unspecified species of birch has also been reported to be used to make torches for night fishing, trumpets for calling game. containers, boxes, and cups.  Bark sheets are also used in wigwam construction (Speck and Dexter1951, Wallis and Wallis 1955, Nova Scotia Museum factsheet, ND). 

Heartleaf Willow / Cottony Willow / Salix eriocephala is a shrub belonging to the Salicaceae (Willow) family.  It occurs mostly on riverbanks and out on gravel bars, and in bottomlands, but also occurs elsewhere.  Bark from this species is traditionally used as a cold remedy and to stimulate the appetite.  The bark was also used to treat blisters (Chandler et al. 1979).  Leaves of unspecified Willow species have also been used as tobacco (Speck and Dexter 1951). 

Indian Cucumber Root / Eskitmukewey / Medeola virginiana is a small herbaceous woodland plant which belongs to the Liliaceae or Lily family.  It occurs in open deciduous woods, usually scattered on well‐drained slopes.  It produces a tuber that smells and tastes like garden cucumber and was significant to Mi'kmaq in Nova Scotia (Unama'ki Institute of Natural Resources, 2012)

Jewelweed or Spotted Touch‐me‐not / Impatiens capensis is a herbaceous plant which belongs to the Balsaminaceae or balsam family.  It grows in damp rich soils in wooded areas.  Parts of this plant have been used to treat jaundice (Chandler et al. 1979). 

Labrador Tea / Apuistekie'  ji'jit/ Rhododendron (syn. Ledum) groenlandicum is a low‐growing woody shrub belonging to the Ericaceae or Heath family.  It grows in bogs, wooded swamps, wet barrens, and poorly‐drained clearings and pastures.  The leaves, and sometimes the whole leafy twigs and flowers, of this species, were used, fresh or dried, for tea (Speck 1917, Speck and Dexter 1951, 1952, Wallis and Wallis 1955, Stoddard 1962, Lacey 1977, Chandler et al. 1979).  Leaves were used for the common cold (Chandler et al. 1979); a decoction of leaves taken as a diuretic (Speck 1917) and as a treatment for scurvy (Chandler et al. 1979).  They could also be used for kidney trouble; to make a beverage (Chandler et al. 1979) and to treat asthma (Chandler et al. 1979).  A leaf tonic treated a variety of kidney ailments (Lacey 1993) and was considered to have a "beneficial effect on the system "(Speck 1917). 

Lambkill / Kalmia angustifolia is a low shrub which belongs to the Ericacaea or Heath family.  Snuff made from roasted leaves of this plant was used by Mi'kmaq to treat colds (Black 1980).  Parts of this plant were also used to treat pain (Wallis 1922, Chandler et al. 1979), with a poultice of crushed leaves bound to head for headache (Speck 1917).  This plant was also used for swellings and sprains (Chandler et al. 1979).  An infusion of leaves was also considered valuable as a "non‐specific remedy" (Speck 1917).  It was also boiled and used as bathing solution to reduce swelling, ease pain of rheumatism and treat sore legs and feet (Lacey 1993).  Lambkill wood was also used to treat kidney trouble (Chandler et al. 1979). Overall, this plant is considered very poisonous (Speck 1917, MacKinnon et al. 2009), as suggested by the common English common name of "lambkill". 

Large‐fruited Cranberry / Vaccinium macrocarpon is a low‐growing woody vine belonging to the Ericaceae or heath family.  It occurs primarily in bogs.  Cranberries can be eaten fresh (Waugh 1916, Speck and Dexter 1951, 1952; Stoddard 1962, Black 1980), and the stewed berries make a general tonic (Lacey 1993). 

Low Bush Blueberry / Pkumanaqsi / Vaccinium angustifolium is a low growing woody shrub belonging to the Ericaeae or heath family.  It is found on headlands, peaty barrens, fields, dry soils, and sandy areas.  Many species of Vaccinium produce berries which can be used fresh or dried.  The Mi'kmaq also made juice from blueberries and bilberries for drinking, but most reports do not state which species were involved (Speck and Dexter 1951, 1952, Adney 1944, Lacey 1977). 

Maple / Acer spp. are deciduous trees belonging to the Maple family (Aceraceae), and occur in various habitats.  Unspecified maple wood is used to make pins for securing clothing (Wallis and Wallis 1964). See also Red, Striped, and Sugar Maple. 

Narrow‐leaved Cattail / Typha angustifolia is a herbaceous plant belonging to the Typhaceae or cattail family.  It occurs in brackish swales near the coast, inland swamps, ditches, and along streams.  It has been used to treat 'gravel' (kidney stones) (Chandler et al. 1979).  Unspecified cattail species have also been widely used for weaving bags and mats (Nova Scotia Museum factsheet, ND).

Northern Bayberry / Kljimanaqsi / Morella (syn. Myrica) pensylvanica is a small shrub belonging to the Ericacaea or Heath family.  It occurs in coastal areas, on headlands and beaches, but is occasionally found in bogs and on heavier soils.  Snuff made from this plant has been used to treat headache while a root poultice has been used to treat inflammation (Wallis (1922).  A tea made from the berries, bark, and leaves of this species has also been used as an exhilarant (Wallis (1922). 

Northern Red Oak / Quercus rubra is a tree belonging to the Fagacaea or Beech family.  It grows preferentially in light or well‐drained soils and granitic areas.  The bark and roots of northern red oak have been used by Mi'kmaq to treat diarrhoea (Chandler et al. 1979). 

Panicled Bulrush / Scirpus microcarpus is a member of the Cyperaceae or sedge family which occurs in swamps, meadows, and along ditches and streams, especially where there is freshwater seepage.  Roots have been used to treat abscesses while the herbaceous portion may be used to treat sore throats (Chandler et al. 1979). 

Partridge Berry / Mitchella repens is a small woodland plant which produces red berries and belongs to the Rubiaceae or Madder family.  It is a low‐growing groundcover which grows in moist places in forests. Mi'kmaq in Nova Scotia eat partridge berries fresh or preserved and use parts of this plant to brew a tea (Speck 1917, Speck and Dexter1951, 1952).  It was also used in the late stages of pregnancy to ease the pain of childbirth (Lacey 1993). 

Pearly Everlasting / Anaphalis margaritacea is a flowering perennial plant in the Asteraceae family.  Though native to Europe, it is now widespread in North America and is found in pastures, old fields, roadsides, and near borders of woods.  This plant is smoked by Mi'kmaq for spiritual purposes (Lacey 1993). 

Pin Cherry / Maskwe' smanaqsi/ Prunus pennsyulvanicus is a small tree in the Rosaceae (Rose) family.  It occurs in clearings, thickets, and the edges of fields on light soils.  Wood from this species is used to treat chafed skin and prickly heat (Chandler et al. 1979, Unama'ki Institute of Natural Resources, 2012).  Twigs and barks from unspecified Prunus species have also been boiled to make a tea (Lacey 1993).  

Pink Lady' s‐slipper / Moccasin Flower / Cypripedium acaule is a woodland orchid which is common in coniferous woods.  The root of this plant has been used as a sedative to treat nervousness (Chandler et al. 1979). 

Pussy Willow / Lmu'ji'jmnaqsi / Salix discolour is a multi‐trunked shrub belonging to the Salicaceae (Willow) family.  It occurs mostly on low ground, in wet pastures, in damp, open woods, and along the edges of swamps.  Pussy willow bark has been used externally to treat bruises and skin cancer, while a tea brewed from this bark is also used to treat colds and kidney ailments (Lacey 1993). 

Queen Anne's Lace / Wild Carrot / Dauca perennial flowering perennial member of the Asteraceae family, which grows in hayfields and along roadsides.  The leaves have been used as a purgative (Chandler et al. 1979, Wallis 1922).  The bark and leaves have also been used to treat festers and wounds (Chandler et al. 1979).  Dried, powdered bark or green leaves rubbed over bruises (Wallis 1922), and the gum was used for bruises, sores and wounds (Chandler et al. 1979). 

Red Elderberry / Pukulu'  skwimanaqsi'l / Sambucus racemosa is a small shrub belonging to the Adoxaceae family.  It grows in meadows, wet places, rocky hillsides, and along streams in rich soils.  The juicy, tart berries were eaten fresh or dried for winter storage (Speck and Dexter 1951, 1952), while the bark was used for emetic and cathartic purposes (Lacey 1993, Chandler et al. 1979).

Red Maple / Acer rubrum is a small member of the Maple family which occurs in swamps, alluvial soils, and moist uplands.  Traditionally this species has been used to make basket ware (Speck and Dexter 1951). 

Red Osier Dogwood / Cornus sericea ssp. Sericea is a small shrub which is a member of the Dogwood family.  It occurs along edges of intervales, brook sides, wet meadows, and ditches along roadsides, and is most common in rich, alkaline soils.  This species is thought to have analgesic properties and may be used to treat headache and sore eyes (Chandler et al. 1979).  It was also used to treat a runny nose and sore throat (Chandler et al. 1979). 

Red Raspberry / Klitawmanaqsi'k / Rubus idaeus is a bramble in the Rosaceae or Rose family.  It grows mostly on roadsides, deforested land, talus slopes, and rocky ground. Mi'kmaq in NS use the berries fresh or dried (Speck and Dexter 1951, 1952) and also make juice from the berries (Stoddard 1962).  The leaves and roots of this plant can be used to treat rheumatism, and the berries are considered a good general tonic (Lacey 1993).  The fruits of various other unspecified Rubus species have also been used as a food source by Mi'kmaq people of Nova Scotia (Speck and Dexter 1951, 1952). 

Shining Willow / Salix lucida is a shrub belonging to the Salicaceae (Willow) family.  It occurs along large streams and lakes, on sand bars, and occasionally in wet ground or ditches.  Bark from this species is traditionally used to stop bleeding (Wallis 1922, Chandler et al. 1979), and as a respiratory aid for asthma (Chandler et al. 1979).  Leaves of unspecified willow species have also been used as tobacco (Speck and Dexter 1951).  

Skunk Currant / Ribes glandulosum is a small species of a flowering shrub belonging to the Grossulariaceae family.  It grows in damp rich forested areas and produces edible berries.  Its fruit may have been used by Mi'kmaq in NS, as Speck and Dexter (1951, 1952) state that Mi'kmaq in NS used unspecified species of currants as a food source.  

Smooth Serviceberry / Klmuejmnaqsi / Amelanchier laevis is a shrub belonging to the Rosaceae or Rose family.  It occurs in hedgerows and the borders of woods.  It has been widely used by First Nations people throughout Canada and is considered to be significant by the Mi'kmaq of Nova Scotia (MacKinnon et al. 2009, Unama'ki Institute of Natural Resources 2012). 

Speckled Alder / Tupsi / Alnus incana is a small tree or shrub belonging to the Betulaceae (Birch) family which occurs on low ground in alluvial soils.  The bark of this species is reported to have been used to treat mouth ulcers and to relieve pain (Chandler et al. 1979).  The bark of unspecified Alder species have also been used to treat bleeding, haemorrhage of lungs, fever, fractures, diphtheria, wounds (Chandler et al. 1979).  Alder bark can be used to make a dye (Speck and Dexter 1951).

Striped Maple, Mountain Maple, or Moosewood / Mimkutaqo' q / Acer pensylvanicum is a small member of the Maple family found in rocky woods, rich deciduous forests, on wooded slopes and along streams.  Its bark has been used for tea (Speck and Dexter 1951, 1952; Lacey 1977; Wallis and Wallis 1955).  Wood from this maple has been used to treat spitting blood, and unspecified plant parts may be used for "trouble with the limbs" (Chandler et al. 1979).  The saplings of this species were used in shelter construction (Nova Scotia Museum factsheet, ND).

Sugar maple / Snawey / Acer saccharum occurs on well‐drained soils.  It can be used to make bows and arrows (Speck and Dexter 1951).]

Tall Buttercup / Ranunculus acris is a small herbaceous plant belonging to the Ranunculaceae or Buttercup family.  It grows in fields, meadows, and roadsides, mainly in heavy or moist soil. Mi'kmaq in NS have used leaves of this plant as an analgesic to treat headaches (Chandler et al. 1979). 

Trembling Aspen / Populus tremuloides is a deciduous tree in the Poplar family.  It grows in damp soils.  The bark of this species has been used as a cold remedy and also to stimulate the appetite (Chandler et al. 1979).

Virginia and Woodland Strawberries / Atuomkminaqsi / Fragaria virginiana and F. vesca are small herbaceous species that grow in old fields and roadsides.  Berries of these species were used fresh or preserved or made into beverages (Speck and Dexter 1951, 1952; Adney 1944, Rousseau 1945). Unspecified parts of this plant have been used to treat irregular menstruation (Chandler et al. 1979). White Ash / Fraxinus americana is a tree within the Oleaceae family.  It occurs in intervale forests, low ground, and open woods.  The leaves of this species were used for cleansing after childbirth (Chandler et al. 1979).  Wood was used to make axe and knife handles (Speck and Dexter 1951).  

White Birch or Paper Birch / Maskwi / Betula papyrifera is found in forests, especially on slopes.  Paper birch bark has traditionally been used in making baskets, dishes, cooking utensils, boxes, coffins and other containers.  Bark used to make canoes and house coverings (Speck and Dexter 1951; Speck and Dexter 1951; Rousseau 1948).

White Spruce or Cat Spruce / Kwatkw / Picea glauca is an evergreen tree in the Pinaceae (Pine) family.  It grows mostly in old fields and along the coast.  The bark of this species can be used for a variety of purposes.  It has been used to make a beverage and various medicines (Speck and Dexter 1951; Wallis and Wallis 1955; Stoddard 1962, Lacey 1977, Lacey 1993).  Preparation of the bark is used as a cough remedy, and as a salve for cuts and wounds (Chandler et al. 1979).  The gum may be used to treat scabs and sores (Chandler et al. 1979).  Unspecified parts o this plant may also be used to treat stomach trouble (Chandler et al. 1979).  The bark leaves and stems are also used to treat scurvy (Chandler et al. 1979).  White spruce wood is used for kindling and fuel, and the boughs were traditionally used to make beds (Speck and Dexter (1951).  Unspecified spruce species have also been used as a source of poles for wigwam construction, and roots for sewing twine (Nova Scotia Museum factsheet, ND, Wallis and Wallis 1955). 

Wild Sarsaparilla / Wopapa'kjukal / Aralia nudicaulis is a perennial herbaceous plant with large compound leaves which occurs mostly in dry woodlands and old forest.  Its rhizomes have been used to make a beverage (Speck and Dexter 1951, MacKinnon et al. 2009), and the root may be used to make a cough medicine (Chandler et al. 1979, Lacey 1993).  It may also be used externally to treat wounds (Lacey 1993). 

Wintergreen, Teaberry, or Checkerberry / Gaultheria procumbens is a small perennial plant which occurs in woods, barrens, pastures.  It is a member of the Ericaceae or Heath family. The Mi'kmaq were said to make juice from the berries (Stoddard 1962, Rousseau 1947, Speck and Dexter 1952, Lacey 1977), which were also eaten fresh.  The bark was used to treat bleeding (Chandler et al. 1979).  It was used as preventative medicine for heart attacks and used by someone recuperating from a heart attack, and tea from the plant was used to thin and regulate the blood to prevent blood clots (Lacey 1993).

Yellow Birch / Betula allegheniensis is a deciduous tree in the Birch family.  Traditionally, First Nations people in eastern Canada have consumed the sap of this tree, rendered it into syrup and sugar, and made tea from the wintergreen‐flavoured twigs (Waugh 1916, Stoddard 1962, Lacey 1977).  The bark is also chewed for nourishment (Lacey 1993).  The bark of this tree has been used to treat rheumatism as well as relieve indigestion, diarrhoea and stomach cramps (Lacey 1977).  The wood has been used as a hot-water bottle (Chandler et al. 1979), and thin branches have been used as straps and thongs (Wallis and Wallis 1960).